Understanding suicide: psychological perspectives

Written by Jessica Muñoz, Jessica Muñoz is a registered nurse and educator with 20 years of experience in critical care emergency nursing, specializing in patient care, education, and evidence-based practice. She holds multiple certifications and serves as a Patient Safety Coordinator.

Suicide is a deeply emotional and complicated subject that touches many lives. While it’s hard to fully understand why someone might feel driven to end their life, exploring psychological theories can shed light on the factors that might lead to such feelings and actions.

This article breaks down some key psychological ideas about suicide, helping us better understand the causes and how we can support those at risk.

Durkheim’s theory: the role of social connections

Sociologist Emile Durkheim believed that our connections with others play a big role in whether someone might consider suicide. He described four types of suicide based on how connected—or disconnected—people feel in society:

• Egoistic suicide: When people feel isolated, lonely, or cut off from others.
• Altruistic suicide: When someone sacrifices themselves for what they see as the greater good, often in very tightly knit communities.
• Anomic suicide: When life feels out of control, such as during times of major social or economic change, leaving people feeling lost or without purpose.
• Fatalistic suicide: When people feel trapped or overly controlled as if they have no freedom or way out of their situation.

Understanding these social factors can help us see how loneliness, stress, or lack of control can impact mental health.

Joiner’s theory: feeling disconnected and like a burden

Psychologist Thomas Joiner identified three key feelings that often come together before someone considers suicide:

1. Feeling like a burden: Thinking your existence is a problem for others.
2. Feeling disconnected: Lacking close, meaningful relationships or feeling alienated.
3. Developing the ability to act on suicidal thoughts: Over time, some people may lose their fear of death and become more tolerant of pain, which increases the risk.

When these feelings combine—feeling like a burden, feeling alone, and having the means to act—Joiner’s research shows the risk of suicide becomes much higher.

Shneidman’s idea of “psychache”

Dr. Edwin Shneidman introduced the term “psychache” to describe the overwhelming emotional pain that can lead to suicide. This pain often comes from unmet needs, like feeling unloved, losing self-esteem, or having broken relationships. For someone in this much pain, suicide might seem like the only way to make it stop. By understanding what’s causing their pain, we can find ways to help and offer support.

O’Connor’s model: how suicidal thoughts turn into actions

Psychologist Rory O’Connor’s integrated motivational-volitional model (IMV) explains how thoughts of suicide can develop and lead to actions. It divides the process into three stages:

1. Before the thoughts start: Personal factors like genetics, personality, or tough life events can make someone more vulnerable to suicidal feelings.
2. When suicidal thoughts form: Feelings of being defeated, humiliated, or trapped can lead to thoughts of ending one’s life, especially if someone feels there’s no way out.
3. When thoughts turn into action: At this stage, the person may start making plans or attempts, often influenced by things like access to means or the confidence to carry out their thoughts.

O’Connor’s model helps us understand how different factors work together to influence behavior, showing where we can step in to help.

Cognitive theories: the power of negative thoughts

Psychologist Aaron Beck’s theory focuses on how our thoughts can shape our feelings and actions. Many people struggling with suicidal thoughts share certain negative beliefs, including:

• Feeling hopeless about the future.
• Feeling helpless to change their circumstances.
• Feeling worthless and thinking they don’t matter.

These thoughts can create a cycle of despair, where someone believes things will never get better. Recognizing these patterns early and offering support can make a big difference.

Why these theories matter

These psychological perspectives highlight the different reasons why someone might consider suicide—from feeling isolated or overwhelmed to experiencing unbearable emotional pain.

Understanding these factors can help us create better ways to support those in crisis and prevent suicide. By learning to spot the warning signs and offering a listening ear, we can all play a part in helping someone find hope and healing.

If you or someone you know is struggling, reach out to a trusted friend, family member, or a crisis hotline. There is always help, and you don’t have to face this alone.

Works cited

1. Joiner, T. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.
2. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1993). Manual for the Beck scale for suicide ideation. Psychological Corporation.
3. Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117(2), 575-600.
4. Shneidman, E. S. (1993). Suicide as psychache: A clinical approach to self-destructive behavior. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
5. Durkheim, E. (1897). Le suicide: Étude de sociologie. Alcan.
6. Klonsky, E. D., & May, A. M. (2015). The three-step theory (3ST): A new theory of suicide rooted in the “ideation-to-action” framework. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 8(2), 114-129.
7. Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. International Psycho-Analytical.
8. Mann, J. J., Waternaux, C., Haas, G. L., & Malone, K. M. (1999). Toward a clinical model of suicidal behavior in psychiatric patients. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(2), 181-189.
9. O’Connor, R. C., & Nock, M. K. (2014). The psychology of suicidal behaviour. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(1), 73-85.
10. Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. Guilford Press.